إنجليزية شكسبير (دراسة في صرف اللغة )

**د. عبد الله بن محمود** · 27/Mar/2010, 01:55 PM

الباحث: د / شاكرة عليه حسين العلاني

الدرجة العلمية: دكتوراه

الجامعة: صنعاء

الكلية: الآداب

القسم: اللغة الإنجليزية

تاريخ الإقرار: 2006

INTRODUCTION
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) is universally acclaimed as the greatest ever classic of English literature.Since his childhood, Shakespeare experienced many ups and downs in life.The economic conditions of the family during the first decade of Shakespeare’s life was fairly prosperous, but then through business losses, it dwindled considerably to the point that Shakespeare had to be removed from school because his father was not in a position to pay the school fees.His initiation in the business of his father was followed by a hasty marriage and birth of children in quick succession.When he found himself unable to support his family, he moved from Stratford-on-Avon to London to try his luck.Six years of hard work, including tending horses of visitors outside a playhouse, led him to a successful career in the theater.
When temporarily out of work due to an outbreak of the 1593 plague, Shakespeare got the support of a private patron, the Earl of Southampton, to whom he later dedicated his two long narrative poems Venus and Adonis 1593 and The Rape of Lucrece 1594.When the theaters reopened, he soon became a member of the most successful company of actors in London, The Lord Chamberlain’s Men.He was now an actor, a playwright and a shareholder of this company, which later built The Globe Theater. One tenth of the company’s revenues used to go to Shakespeare’s pockets, a handsome amount which enabled him to purchase a fine house back home in Stratford-on-Avon. The Lord Chamberlain’s Men were often summoned by Queen Elizabeth to put up private performances for her at the court.They continued their performances at the court even during the rule of James I who renamed this company as The King’s Men.By now, Shakespeare has made a name for himself both as an actor and as a playwright.

Though we know when his plays were first published, it is not easy to know when each one of his thirty seven plays was actually written.Still scholars have actually tried to date the plays by giving whatever evidence there is both inside and outside the text, and their assumptions provide a reasonable basis for considering the development of Shakespeare’s art.
It is presumed that he began by writing comedies like The Comedy of Errors and Love’s Labour’s Lost and plays based on English history such as Henry and Richard plays. His first tragedy, Titus Adronicus was written about 1593/4 and Romeo and Juliet between 1594 and 1596, along with the finest of his early comedies A Midsummer Night’s Dream.The Merchant of Venice and Julius Caesar were written between 1597 and 1599.It is also presumed that his great comedies, like Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It and Twelfth Night were also written before the turn of the century.With the coming of the new century, came the period of the great tragedies: Hamlet (1600-1601), Othello (1603-1604), King Lear and Macbeth (1605-1606), Antony and Cleopatra (1606-1607) and Coriolanus (1607- 1609).His last plays, apart form Henry VIII, are popularly known as ‘romances’ because of their freely imaginative settings and themes and also because they do not easily fit into the usual forms of comedy and tragedy.The most notable among these are The Winter’s Tale (1610-1611) and The Tempest (1611).

Though he continued to write for the London stage, Shakespeare seems to have retired to Stratford about 1610.He had made a good fortune out of his career as an actor, playwright and company shareholder.It was seven years after his death that some of his friends and fellow actors collected and published an edition of thirty- six of the plays in one large volume, the famous First Folio (1623).The period of Shakespeare’s literary activity, thus, extends over a period of twenty-four years, which is divided into four sub-periods: The first period (1588 to 1594), second period (1594 to1600), third period (1600 to 1608) and the fourth period (1608 to 1612).

Shakespeare depicted themes in his plays that are temporal and timeless as well as local and universal.He wrote about social life, national life and about human life in general, about fashions, about traveling, games and sports, about rituals, witches and wizards and so on.He depicted universal human emotions like love, hatred, hope, despair, endurance, courage, pity, fear, sympathy, sorrow, anguish, agony and the like.The appeal of the writing is timeless and universal. He was an English writer of the sixteenth-seventeenth century; but he was also a global writer of all ages.

There are two things to be noted about Shakespeare.The first is that he had only little formal education.If we compare him to Ben Jonson who, in addition to being a poet and dramatist, was a scholarly grammarian, or to Marlowe and other university wits, who had respectable university education, mostly in the University of Cambridge itself, we find that he did not have any formal education in that sense.It is a well-established fact that he never studied in any university.His school education has also been a matter of discussion among his biographers.The lack of formal education in his case, thus, turned out to be an enormous creative advantage.He largely depended on his own intuition, observation and experience.The second thing to be noted about him is that he never went out of England and it cannot therefore be said that his lack of education was compensated by his knowledge acquired through traveling.There is no doubt whatsoever that education as well as traveling have a sophisticating and refining influence on one’s thoughts and feelings.It can also, however, operate as a constricting and inhibiting phenomenon.Shakespeare was not ‘a horse of instruction’, but ‘a tiger of wrath’, to use William Blake’s phrases.His genius was natural.He was not a copybook writer trying to adjust his writings according to the demands of this school or that school.His plays are a depiction of life and not an illustration of a theory of life. He really had a profound and searching insight into the universal instincts of human nature.

Like any other writer, Shakespeare did not become great overnight.In fact his greatness lies in his remarkable development.Alongside his creative imagination, what also developed are his sense of language as well as his sense of formal organization.Because of his lack of formal education, he did not bother much about the rules of grammar and usage.He rather explored the native genius of the English language and exploited to the full its potentialities.With the same words, phrases and other aspects of language, he could express more meaning than his contemporaries could do.His contemporaries, with their university education, very largely latin-based, developed a profound and in some cases very obsessive fondness for correctness.It is now fairly well-known that under the influence of a highly Latinized grammar taught in the University of Cambridge, Ben Jonson rewrote many of his poems and even plays, thinking mistakenly that a preposition can and should occur only before its completives and never at the end of a sentence.His scholarly understanding of the prefix pre-, in the word preposition, acted as the unfortunate motivating factor for revising what was written in spontaneous and usage-wise correct expression.Shakespeare was not writing under any such constricting influence.His intuitive feel for spontaneity enriched by a highly developed sense of elegance and beauty in the use of language was his only guiding force.As in the case of Tagore and in the case of Thomas Addison, the scientist who revolutionized the history of physics by inventing the fluorescent bulb and gramophone, the lack of formal education turned out to be an enormous creative advantage.

It is also worth noting that his sense of language underwent a continuous development over the years.If, for example, we compare passages written during the first phase of his literary career with passages written during the fourth phase, we can easily discern the growing stylistic maturity in the latter.The following passage from Richard III (I. iv. 21-33), in which the Duke of Clarence describes his dream, can be compared with the passage from The Tempest (V. i. 33-50), in which Prospero describes his magic, to underline Shakespeare’s growing maturity in the use of vocabulary, syntax, meter, rhythm, imagery and blank verse:

Lord, Lord! methought, what pain it was to drown!
What dreadful noise of waters in mine ears!
What ugly sights of death within mine eyes!
Methought I saw a thousand fearful wracks;
Ten thousand men that fishes gnaw’d upon;
Wedges of gold, great anchors, heaps of pearl,
Inestimable stones, unvalued jewels,
All scatt’red in the bottom of the sea:
Some lay in dead men’s skulls; and in those holes
Where eyes did once inhabit, there were crept,
As ’twere in scorn of eyes, reflecting gems,
That woo’d the slimy bottom of the deep,
And mockt the dead bones that lay scatt’redby.
(R3. I. iv. 21-33)

Ye elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes and groves;
And ye that on the sands with printless foot
Do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do fly him
When he comes back; you demi-puppets that
By moonshine do the green sour ringlets make,
Whereof the ewe not bites; and you whose pastime
Is to make midnight mushrumps, that rejoice
To hear the solemn curfew; by whose aid-
Weak masters though ye be- I have bedimm’d
The noontide sun, call’d forth the mutinous winds,
And ‘twixt the green sea and the azured vault
Set roaring war: to the dread-rattling thunder
Have I given fire, and rifted Jove’s stout oak
With his won bolt: the strong-based promontory
Have I made shake; and by the spurs pluck’d up
The pine and cedar: graves at my command
Have waked their sleepers, oped, and let ’em forth
By my so potent art.
(TMP. V. i. 33-50)

A close analysis and comparison of these two passages would certainly reveal a stylistic shift from monotony to variety, from relatively rudimental to lexically rich and syntactically flexible.
Although both passages are descriptive, the first one lacks liveliness compared to the second, in which Prospero does not just describe his magic skills, but he enlivens it by addressing the parole to the elves as if it were a dialogue, not a monologue. Besides, higher register items are used in the second passage and compounds are hurled together and “left to work their complex and unstable union in the reader’s mind”.
In terms of syntactic variation, there is a co-occurrence of the pronouns ye and you both as subject pronouns: “ye elves of hills, brooks… you demi-puppets.” The use of the do, in affirmative statements: “do chase the ebbing Neptune and do fly him...” and the inverted word order as in: “to the dread-rattling thunder have I given fire” and “the strong-based promontory have I made shake”. All these syntactic variations constitute a break from the monotonous style prevalent in the earlier works.
While investigating the uses of ye and you, a shift of stress is noticed, for instance the first ye is unstressed the second is stressed, the first you is also unstressed, the second you is stressed.The pronouns which introduce relative clauses are the ones which are unstressed: “And ye that on the hills…” and “you whose pastime…” The arrangement of the stressed and unstressed syllables into such an alternating pattern gives a distinct musical quality which stresses the maturity of Shakespeare’s style in all aspects of the language, ethical and aesthetical.

[فقط الأعضاء المسجلين يمكنهم رؤية الروابط. ]
منتدى الإيوان
[فقط الأعضاء المسجلين يمكنهم رؤية الروابط. ]

27/Mar/2010, 01:55 PM	#1 (permalink)
د. عبد الله بن محمود عضو اللجنة الاستشارية للمنتدى تاريخ التسجيل: Jan 2009 المشاركات: 457 Thanks: 102 Thanked 85 Times in 44 Posts معدل تقييم المستوى: 4	إنجليزية شكسبير (دراسة في صرف اللغة ) الباحث: د / شاكرة عليه حسين العلانيالدرجة العلمية: دكتوراه الجامعة: صنعاءالكلية: الآدابالقسم: اللغة الإنجليزيةتاريخ الإقرار: 2006 INTRODUCTION William Shakespeare (1564-1616) is universally acclaimed as the greatest ever classic of English literature.Since his childhood, Shakespeare experienced many ups and downs in life.The economic conditions of the family during the first decade of Shakespeare’s life was fairly prosperous, but then through business losses, it dwindled considerably to the point that Shakespeare had to be removed from school because his father was not in a position to pay the school fees.His initiation in the business of his father was followed by a hasty marriage and birth of children in quick succession.When he found himself unable to support his family, he moved from Stratford-on-Avon to London to try his luck.Six years of hard work, including tending horses of visitors outside a playhouse, led him to a successful career in the theater. When temporarily out of work due to an outbreak of the 1593 plague, Shakespeare got the support of a private patron, the Earl of Southampton, to whom he later dedicated his two long narrative poems Venus and Adonis 1593 and The Rape of Lucrece 1594.When the theaters reopened, he soon became a member of the most successful company of actors in London, The Lord Chamberlain’s Men.He was now an actor, a playwright and a shareholder of this company, which later built The Globe Theater. One tenth of the company’s revenues used to go to Shakespeare’s pockets, a handsome amount which enabled him to purchase a fine house back home in Stratford-on-Avon. The Lord Chamberlain’s Men were often summoned by Queen Elizabeth to put up private performances for her at the court.They continued their performances at the court even during the rule of James I who renamed this company as The King’s Men.By now, Shakespeare has made a name for himself both as an actor and as a playwright. Though we know when his plays were first published, it is not easy to know when each one of his thirty seven plays was actually written.Still scholars have actually tried to date the plays by giving whatever evidence there is both inside and outside the text, and their assumptions provide a reasonable basis for considering the development of Shakespeare’s art. It is presumed that he began by writing comedies like The Comedy of Errors and Love’s Labour’s Lost and plays based on English history such as Henry and Richard plays. His first tragedy, Titus Adronicus was written about 1593/4 and Romeo and Juliet between 1594 and 1596, along with the finest of his early comedies A Midsummer Night’s Dream.The Merchant of Venice and Julius Caesar were written between 1597 and 1599.It is also presumed that his great comedies, like Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It and Twelfth Night were also written before the turn of the century.With the coming of the new century, came the period of the great tragedies: Hamlet (1600-1601), Othello (1603-1604), King Lear and Macbeth (1605-1606), Antony and Cleopatra (1606-1607) and Coriolanus (1607- 1609).His last plays, apart form Henry VIII, are popularly known as ‘romances’ because of their freely imaginative settings and themes and also because they do not easily fit into the usual forms of comedy and tragedy.The most notable among these are The Winter’s Tale (1610-1611) and The Tempest (1611). Though he continued to write for the London stage, Shakespeare seems to have retired to Stratford about 1610.He had made a good fortune out of his career as an actor, playwright and company shareholder.It was seven years after his death that some of his friends and fellow actors collected and published an edition of thirty- six of the plays in one large volume, the famous First Folio (1623).The period of Shakespeare’s literary activity, thus, extends over a period of twenty-four years, which is divided into four sub-periods: The first period (1588 to 1594), second period (1594 to1600), third period (1600 to 1608) and the fourth period (1608 to 1612). Shakespeare depicted themes in his plays that are temporal and timeless as well as local and universal.He wrote about social life, national life and about human life in general, about fashions, about traveling, games and sports, about rituals, witches and wizards and so on.He depicted universal human emotions like love, hatred, hope, despair, endurance, courage, pity, fear, sympathy, sorrow, anguish, agony and the like.The appeal of the writing is timeless and universal. He was an English writer of the sixteenth-seventeenth century; but he was also a global writer of all ages. There are two things to be noted about Shakespeare.The first is that he had only little formal education.If we compare him to Ben Jonson who, in addition to being a poet and dramatist, was a scholarly grammarian, or to Marlowe and other university wits, who had respectable university education, mostly in the University of Cambridge itself, we find that he did not have any formal education in that sense.It is a well-established fact that he never studied in any university.His school education has also been a matter of discussion among his biographers.The lack of formal education in his case, thus, turned out to be an enormous creative advantage.He largely depended on his own intuition, observation and experience.The second thing to be noted about him is that he never went out of England and it cannot therefore be said that his lack of education was compensated by his knowledge acquired through traveling.There is no doubt whatsoever that education as well as traveling have a sophisticating and refining influence on one’s thoughts and feelings.It can also, however, operate as a constricting and inhibiting phenomenon.Shakespeare was not ‘a horse of instruction’, but ‘a tiger of wrath’, to use William Blake’s phrases.His genius was natural.He was not a copybook writer trying to adjust his writings according to the demands of this school or that school.His plays are a depiction of life and not an illustration of a theory of life. He really had a profound and searching insight into the universal instincts of human nature. Like any other writer, Shakespeare did not become great overnight.In fact his greatness lies in his remarkable development.Alongside his creative imagination, what also developed are his sense of language as well as his sense of formal organization.Because of his lack of formal education, he did not bother much about the rules of grammar and usage.He rather explored the native genius of the English language and exploited to the full its potentialities.With the same words, phrases and other aspects of language, he could express more meaning than his contemporaries could do.His contemporaries, with their university education, very largely latin-based, developed a profound and in some cases very obsessive fondness for correctness.It is now fairly well-known that under the influence of a highly Latinized grammar taught in the University of Cambridge, Ben Jonson rewrote many of his poems and even plays, thinking mistakenly that a preposition can and should occur only before its completives and never at the end of a sentence.His scholarly understanding of the prefix pre-, in the word preposition, acted as the unfortunate motivating factor for revising what was written in spontaneous and usage-wise correct expression.Shakespeare was not writing under any such constricting influence.His intuitive feel for spontaneity enriched by a highly developed sense of elegance and beauty in the use of language was his only guiding force.As in the case of Tagore and in the case of Thomas Addison, the scientist who revolutionized the history of physics by inventing the fluorescent bulb and gramophone, the lack of formal education turned out to be an enormous creative advantage. It is also worth noting that his sense of language underwent a continuous development over the years.If, for example, we compare passages written during the first phase of his literary career with passages written during the fourth phase, we can easily discern the growing stylistic maturity in the latter.The following passage from Richard III (I. iv. 21-33), in which the Duke of Clarence describes his dream, can be compared with the passage from The Tempest (V. i. 33-50), in which Prospero describes his magic, to underline Shakespeare’s growing maturity in the use of vocabulary, syntax, meter, rhythm, imagery and blank verse: Lord, Lord! methought, what pain it was to drown! What dreadful noise of waters in mine ears! What ugly sights of death within mine eyes! Methought I saw a thousand fearful wracks; Ten thousand men that fishes gnaw’d upon; Wedges of gold, great anchors, heaps of pearl, Inestimable stones, unvalued jewels, All scatt’red in the bottom of the sea: Some lay in dead men’s skulls; and in those holes Where eyes did once inhabit, there were crept, As ’twere in scorn of eyes, reflecting gems, That woo’d the slimy bottom of the deep, And mockt the dead bones that lay scatt’redby. (R3. I. iv. 21-33) Ye elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes and groves; And ye that on the sands with printless foot Do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do fly him When he comes back; you demi-puppets that By moonshine do the green sour ringlets make, Whereof the ewe not bites; and you whose pastime Is to make midnight mushrumps, that rejoice To hear the solemn curfew; by whose aid- Weak masters though ye be- I have bedimm’d The noontide sun, call’d forth the mutinous winds, And ‘twixt the green sea and the azured vault Set roaring war: to the dread-rattling thunder Have I given fire, and rifted Jove’s stout oak With his won bolt: the strong-based promontory Have I made shake; and by the spurs pluck’d up The pine and cedar: graves at my command Have waked their sleepers, oped, and let ’em forth By my so potent art. (TMP. V. i. 33-50) A close analysis and comparison of these two passages would certainly reveal a stylistic shift from monotony to variety, from relatively rudimental to lexically rich and syntactically flexible. Although both passages are descriptive, the first one lacks liveliness compared to the second, in which Prospero does not just describe his magic skills, but he enlivens it by addressing the parole to the elves as if it were a dialogue, not a monologue. Besides, higher register items are used in the second passage and compounds are hurled together and “left to work their complex and unstable union in the reader’s mind”. In terms of syntactic variation, there is a co-occurrence of the pronouns ye and you both as subject pronouns: “ye elves of hills, brooks… you demi-puppets.” The use of the do, in affirmative statements: “do chase the ebbing Neptune and do fly him...” and the inverted word order as in: “to the dread-rattling thunder have I given fire” and “the strong-based promontory have I made shake”. All these syntactic variations constitute a break from the monotonous style prevalent in the earlier works. While investigating the uses of ye and you, a shift of stress is noticed, for instance the first ye is unstressed the second is stressed, the first you is also unstressed, the second you is stressed.The pronouns which introduce relative clauses are the ones which are unstressed: “And ye that on the hills…” and “you whose pastime…” The arrangement of the stressed and unstressed syllables into such an alternating pattern gives a distinct musical quality which stresses the maturity of Shakespeare’s style in all aspects of the language, ethical and aesthetical. [فقط الأعضاء المسجلين يمكنهم رؤية الروابط. ] منتدى الإيوان [فقط الأعضاء المسجلين يمكنهم رؤية الروابط. ] آخر تعديل بواسطة د. عبد الله بن محمود ، 17/May/2010 الساعة 12:59 PM

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